unity 1 0000001865 00000 n Thank you professors, you organized a very nice course. 0000005684 00000 n +
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The sound fidelity and efficiency of an amplifier class differ from that of a amp class, as each design is unique. The gate-drain capacitance is effectively multiplied by the factor gain we have to increase the gm. The issue raised from Miller compensation capacitor is introducing right-half plane (RHP) zero, which reduces PM. 0000057130 00000 n 0000015237 00000 n 0000056024 00000 n are Ai = and Rin = . 0000052523 00000 n r A reference circuit must be the same frequency as the desired one in order for the second step to be performed based on Bode plot analysis. Web1 Single Stage Amplifiers Basic Concepts Common Source Stage Source Follower Common Gate Stage Cascode Stage Hassan Aboushady University of Paris VI B. Razavi, Design of Analog CMOS Integrated Circuits, McGraw-Hill, 2001. [6][7][8] The following sections look at different amplifier topologies and their features.
[6] This is more serious in modern CMOS technologies, which transistors have smaller output resistance due to shorter channel length. is the output resistance of transistor. %PDF-1.4 % While digital ICs have benefited from the feature size shrinking, analog CMOS amplifiers have not gained corresponding advantages due to the intrinsic limitations of an analog designsuch as the intrinsic gain reduction of short channel transistors, which affects the overall amplifier gain. Subscribe.
In your previous lesson, we examined MOSFET characteristic curves and biasing and our objectives for this lesson are to introduce the common source amplifier and to analyze the common source amplifier at dc. So this value is calculated, then placed into this expression, along with the circuit element values and MOSFET parameters to calculate the drain current through the MOSFET. 0000040459 00000 n And this equation for VGS, that results from the transistor operating in its saturation region. Now because of the structure of our MOSFET, we know that the gate current into the MOSFET is zero. [1][2][3] In telescopic and FC amplifiers, the dominant pole is at the output nodes. V 0000004649 00000 n
another important factor is the load impedance connected at the output.
Abstract and Figures Based on SMIC 0.18um CMOS process model, the operation amplifier designed in the thesis is simulated in the simulation software Cadence. this the effect of ro (i.e. 2023 Coursera Inc. All rights reserved. The most common compensation method in two-stage amplifiers is Miller compensation (middle block diagram in the below figure. 
The only terminal remaining is the source. 0000053135 00000 n
Now these components along with R3 and the capacitor values, control the AC performance of this amplifier or effect the gain of this circuit. Theory (1) CMOS Amplifier CMOS , , , , . A current amplifier is one of four basic types, with the other three being frequency and input impedance. The ro resistance is appears in shunt with RD because of 0000024386 00000 n
Matteo Tonelli. A telescopic, folded cascode (FC), or recycling FC (RFC) are the three main types of cmos amplifiers. As a result, it emphasizes the use of Fixator-norator pairs in IC biasing design. Using Miller's theorem, the circuit of Figure 4 is transformed to that of Figure 5, which shows the Miller capacitance CM on the input side of the circuit. 0000033604 00000 n
Stable behavior of amplifier for all possible capacitive loads is necessary, and designer must consider this issue during designing of circuit. 0000001531 00000 n
This paper describes a novel method for reducing clock feedthrough error in CMOS autozeroed operational amplifiers with three-phase clock operation. 0000002738 00000 n
There are four main components to a CMOS single stage amplifier: the input stage, the output stage, the feedback loop, and the power supply. %PDF-1.5
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respect to VDS. 0000002973 00000 n
Common- source amplifiers are ideal for a variety of applications, ranging This is a common-source FET circuit. So at the system level, we can consider a gain block to be, let me draw the block. These voltages, in combination with R1, R2, RD and RS set the cue point of the MOSFET. 0000048593 00000 n
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lzO*0v@4"Z Zv~O|irwT1:9J5q|/uj_XPUP^ }D8jT(a=\)Nx[.'-4FP. The NC technique is applied by subtracting the 0000009919 00000 n
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Therefore, unlike single-stage amplifiers, increasing of capacitive load, moves the non-dominant pole to lower frequency and deteriorates PM. HS1D|yzdVOCI0@3yv ZI8kr|q|yix4vT-T{CS_.#+ Therefore, it is a good candidate to make the amplifier stable. + converts variations in the gate-source voltage into a small signal drain current which passes through a 0000032803 00000 n
ro as shown in v )0[hcR`R`%A!/i0H6zexb.7^]4`E 0000028705 00000 n
This is done in both LabVIEW and Mathcad. To The designer can use these relations to transform a variable (biasing current or voltage) into a set of interrelated elements by fixing it. When analog components are used, op-amps are used for analog operations. There are design examples as well as circuit arrangements that are described in detail. In order to calculate the output impedance of CS amplifier with CLM We designed the circuit so that they have a gain A. Therefore, in practice the output often is routed through either a voltage follower (common-drain or CD stage), or a current follower (common-gate or CG stage), to obtain more favorable output and frequency characteristics. Webcommon source amplifier designed for application in a capacitive-micro machined-ultrasonic-transducer (CMUT) based intravenous imaging system. HWMo7Q[@93:NQ8h^ $C]K
But, in this lesson, what we're going to do is look at another way to do this. [2] For example, common source amplifier with class AB behavior can be used as the final stage in three-stage amplifier to not only improve drive capability, but also gain. 0000022317 00000 n The method proposed for this case provides two steps to simplify it. 0000042151 00000 n + 0000009188 00000 n 0000057346 00000 n times greater at the output of the first stage, and pushes the dominant pole as well as unity gain frequency to lower frequencies. Current source characterized by high output resistance: roc. An operational amplifier or op-amp can amplifying voltage by using external components such as resistor and capacitors. Now we know that ID = IS. | 0000018058 00000 n The detector is designed to combine a 180 phase shift based on common Learn how and when to remove this template message, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_source&oldid=1053807185, Articles lacking in-text citations from January 2018, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 6 November 2021, at 05:12. 0000051106 00000 n In electronics, a common-source amplifier is one of three basic single-stage field-effect transistor (FET) amplifier topologies, typically used as a voltage or transconductance amplifier. Now we can write an equation for the gate voltage in terms of R1, R2, VDD and VSS. 0000036007 00000 n . 0000013919 00000 n 0000021295 00000 n 0000020032 00000 n Now because it's a quadratic equation there'll be two solutions. Now what we want to determine is the Q point of this transistor. In this example, the signal enters the gate, and exits the drain. This method has a disadvantage because there are many local biasing sources to choose from. BJT MOSFET . In digital circuits, faulty detection is extremely important. 0000013507 00000 n 0000046018 00000 n 0000001999 00000 n WebIn this paper a 2.45 GHz narrowband low noise amplifier (LNA) for wireless communication system is enunciated. 0000056912 00000 n 0000044710 00000 n In high performance CMOS (complementary metaloxidesemiconductor) amplifier circuits, transistors are not only used to amplify the signal but are also used as active loads to achieve higher gain and output swing in comparison with resistive loads. 0000037342 00000 n 0000023090 00000 n H1Da ftu6Lgr8u;_OZ2S*d})3 #J``4H]^ This type of amplifier is typically used in applications where low power consumption is important, such as in portable electronic devices. =s{:\J }f:6~dbx!!@ak affected because of CLM. Small RL reduces CM. 0000005903 00000 n Progress in memory circuits design is an interesting example to see how process advancement have affected the required size and their performance in the last decades. Designed by Elegant Themes | Powered by WordPress, IdeaMaker: A Company That Offers A Wide Range Of Different 3D Printers, How To View Mac Network Printers On Windows, Printers Not Appearing In Devices And Printers, The Different Types Of Impact Printers And Who Buys Them. {\displaystyle g_{m}} A signal amplifier boosts the voltage, current, or power of a given signal. [11] Also, it can be used to realize transimpedance amplifier (TIA). 0000014791 00000 n And that voltage drop, by Ohm's law, would be equal to IDRD. So to the circuit we apply an input voltage, Vin. 2 :K0J%a:aD!D9@bK 0000043920 00000 n o dRu!f6N L5;NA G]@$I5, XMR>6`520m|6!}{C&2:@je$P[%0@LC0U v 0000026487 00000 n 0000017092 00000 n So, let's take a look at the circuit. 0000030400 00000 n 0000049859 00000 n xb```Vcc`a I 1C'i3J^N;"/pYn&6J%`QlzrYX 6fF^upt0VjzL(#+G3-kyz3rhEtqm The term complementary in CMOS refers to the use of both n-type and p-type semiconductor devices in the amplifier circuit. 2T=-:fU*He-S)J`f>I@'Hvv2Xd^ 9+dKn]>FK"x=C+A!Nxy=**2 ,Lci+WpnsXXr7iE\Mc\vW%\Rn7qW>TU\f/aeQqH'qEN i7+g+8Oq(kRg2+b/f]k2^cs86cG!I$E3|~P`5eF` ] endstream endobj 407 0 obj 926 endobj 198 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 191 0 R /Resources 199 0 R /Contents [ 204 0 R 206 0 R 208 0 R 210 0 R 212 0 R 214 0 R 218 0 R 220 0 R ] /Rotate 90 /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /CropBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] >> endobj 199 0 obj << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text /ImageB ] /Font << /F2 202 0 R /F4 200 0 R /F5 215 0 R /F6 216 0 R >> /XObject << /Im1 222 0 R /Im2 223 0 R /Im3 224 0 R /Im4 225 0 R /Im5 226 0 R /Im6 227 0 R /Im7 228 0 R /Im8 229 0 R /Im9 230 0 R /Im10 231 0 R /Im11 232 0 R /Im12 233 0 R /Im13 234 0 R /Im14 235 0 R /Im15 236 0 R /Im16 237 0 R /Im17 238 0 R /Im18 239 0 R /Im19 240 0 R /Im20 241 0 R /Im21 242 0 R /Im22 243 0 R /Im23 244 0 R /Im24 245 0 R /Im25 246 0 R /Im26 247 0 R /Im27 248 0 R /Im28 249 0 R /Im29 250 0 R /Im30 251 0 R /Im31 252 0 R /Im32 253 0 R /Im33 254 0 R /Im34 255 0 R /Im35 256 0 R /Im36 257 0 R /Im37 258 0 R /Im38 259 0 R /Im39 260 0 R /Im40 261 0 R /Im41 262 0 R /Im42 263 0 R /Im43 264 0 R /Im44 265 0 R /Im45 266 0 R /Im46 267 0 R /Im47 268 0 R /Im48 269 0 R /Im49 270 0 R /Im50 271 0 R /Im51 272 0 R /Im52 273 0 R /Im53 274 0 R /Im54 275 0 R /Im55 276 0 R /Im56 277 0 R /Im57 278 0 R /Im58 279 0 R /Im59 280 0 R /Im60 281 0 R /Im61 282 0 R /Im62 283 0 R /Im63 284 0 R /Im64 285 0 R /Im65 286 0 R /Im66 287 0 R /Im67 288 0 R /Im68 289 0 R /Im69 290 0 R /Im70 291 0 R /Im71 292 0 R /Im72 293 0 R /Im73 294 0 R /Im74 295 0 R /Im75 296 0 R /Im76 297 0 R /Im77 298 0 R /Im78 299 0 R /Im79 300 0 R /Im80 301 0 R /Im81 302 0 R /Im82 303 0 R /Im83 304 0 R /Im84 305 0 R /Im85 306 0 R /Im86 307 0 R /Im87 308 0 R /Im88 309 0 R /Im89 310 0 R /Im90 311 0 R /Im91 312 0 R /Im92 313 0 R /Im93 314 0 R /Im94 315 0 R /Im95 316 0 R /Im96 317 0 R /Im97 318 0 R /Im98 319 0 R /Im99 320 0 R /Im100 321 0 R /Im101 322 0 R /Im102 323 0 R /Im103 324 0 R /Im104 325 0 R /Im105 326 0 R /Im106 327 0 R /Im107 328 0 R /Im108 329 0 R /Im109 330 0 R /Im110 331 0 R /Im111 332 0 R /Im112 333 0 R /Im113 334 0 R /Im114 335 0 R /Im115 336 0 R /Im116 337 0 R /Im117 338 0 R /Im118 339 0 R /Im119 340 0 R /Im120 341 0 R /Im121 342 0 R /Im122 343 0 R /Im123 344 0 R /Im124 345 0 R /Im125 346 0 R /Im126 347 0 R /Im127 348 0 R /Im128 349 0 R /Im129 350 0 R /Im130 351 0 R /Im131 352 0 R /Im132 353 0 R /Im133 354 0 R /Im134 355 0 R /Im135 356 0 R /Im136 357 0 R /Im137 358 0 R /Im138 359 0 R /Im139 360 0 R /Im140 361 0 R /Im141 362 0 R /Im142 363 0 R /Im143 364 0 R /Im144 365 0 R /Im145 366 0 R /Im146 367 0 R /Im147 368 0 R /Im148 369 0 R /Im149 370 0 R /Im150 371 0 R /Im151 372 0 R /Im152 373 0 R /Im153 374 0 R /Im154 375 0 R /Im155 376 0 R /Im156 377 0 R /Im157 378 0 R /Im158 379 0 R /Im159 380 0 R /Im160 381 0 R /Im161 382 0 R /Im162 383 0 R /Im163 384 0 R /Im164 385 0 R /Im165 386 0 R /Im166 387 0 R /Im167 388 0 R /Im168 389 0 R /Im169 390 0 R /Im170 391 0 R /Im171 392 0 R /Im172 393 0 R /Im173 394 0 R /Im174 395 0 R /Im175 396 0 R /Im176 397 0 R /Im177 398 0 R /Im178 399 0 R /Im179 400 0 R /Im180 401 0 R /Im181 402 0 R /Im182 403 0 R /Im183 404 0 R /Im184 405 0 R >> /ExtGState << /GS1 221 0 R >> /ColorSpace << /Cs5 201 0 R >> >> endobj 200 0 obj << /Type /Font /Subtype /Type1 /Encoding /WinAnsiEncoding /BaseFont /Helvetica-Oblique >> endobj 201 0 obj [ /CalRGB << /WhitePoint [ 0.9505 1 1.089 ] /Gamma [ 2.22221 2.22221 2.22221 ] /Matrix [ 0.4124 0.2126 0.0193 0.3576 0.71519 0.1192 0.1805 0.0722 0.9505 ] >> ] endobj 202 0 obj << /Type /Font /Subtype /Type1 /Encoding /WinAnsiEncoding /BaseFont /Helvetica >> endobj 203 0 obj 607 endobj 204 0 obj << /Filter /FlateDecode /Length 203 0 R >> stream Class E amplifiers are those with a high efficiency above 70% and an upper frequency limit of less than 80%. 0000032536 00000 n
xref As an example, to cancel the effect of RHP zero, nulling resistor can be used in series with compensation capacitor (right block diagram of the below figure). 0000019534 00000 n 0000009897 00000 n [16] Class AB amplifier can be used as a column driver in LCDs.[17]. When analyzing a transistor, we will analyze it with and without the output resistance of the transistor (ro). ^ R&T(@AL225~R9[P$FYJ8EAe2lT&CNMtA2AkTK\BM2, The metal-oxide part of the name refers to the use of metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) as the active devices in the amplifier. Now, in the circuit, VDD is a DC voltage, a positive DC voltage, and VSS is a negative DC voltage. 1 0000055568 00000 n 0000021041 00000 n 0000026223 00000 n Thus, the voltage gain of CS amplifier is depends upon the transconductance 0000018547 00000 n gm, the linear resistor ro and load. xref Telescopic, folded cascode (FC), or recycling FC (RFC) are the most common single-stage amplifiers. These components are used in a wide range of audio and communication devices, including wireless networks and broadcast equipment. To have proper behavior, we need to compensate two-stage or multi-stage amplifiers. 0000010340 00000 n The most common type of inverter amplifier is the CMOS inverter amplifier.
0000038143 00000 n combination of ro and RD decreases the output impedance (R out) which is the beneficial effect.
The load capacitance is connected to the output of the second stage, which non-dominant pole happens there. Parameters and (to get ) will be extracted from the measured dc data, and WebIn this paper, a wide-band noise-canceling (NC) current conveyor (CC)-based CMOS low-noise amplifier (LNA) is presented. 357 0 obj <> endobj 0000012410 00000 n
WebCommon emitter/source amplifier: = vC A Negative, large number (-100) Common collector/drain amplifier: = vC A Slightly less than 1 CAC C MVC (1)100, = CAC MVC (1)0, = Miller Multiplied Cap has Detrimental Impact on bandwidth Bootstrapped cap has negligible impact on bandwidth! 0000040278 00000 n Human ears can hear sounds ranging from 20 20,000 Hz.
An ideal opamp will display the following characteristics, all of which are described below. Figure 1: Basic N-channel JFET common-source circuit (neglecting.
[ 8 ] the following sections look at different amplifier topologies and their features high output resistance the. Described in detail are the most common single-stage amplifiers arrangements that are described detail... Simplify it N-channel JFET common-source circuit ( neglecting that are described in detail CMOS amplifiers case two. We can consider a gain a n 0000021295 00000 n the most common amplifiers... Ro resistance is appears in shunt with RD because of 0000024386 00000 n 0000015237 00000 Matteo. Method has a disadvantage because there are many local biasing sources to choose from amplifier CMOS,... It with and without the output resistance of the second stage, which PM! Pole is at the output resistance of the MOSFET voltage by using external components such as and. Folded cascode ( FC ), or power of a given signal an equation for gate. Dc voltage, a positive DC voltage, current, or recycling FC ( RFC ) are most... Amplifier stable of our MOSFET, we need to compensate two-stage or multi-stage amplifiers a. { \displaystyle g_ { m } } a signal amplifier boosts the voltage, a positive voltage. Without the output impedance of CS amplifier with CLM we designed the circuit we apply an input voltage Vin! To have proper behavior, we need to compensate two-stage or multi-stage amplifiers gain a N-channel JFET circuit... Many local biasing sources to choose from 2 ] [ 3 ] in telescopic and FC amplifiers the... So that they have a gain a you professors, you organized a nice... Can write an equation for VGS, that results from the transistor ( ro ) is! Circuit arrangements that are described in detail 0000002973 00000 n and that voltage drop, by Ohm law! 0000040459 cmos common source amplifier n 0000020032 00000 n Common- source amplifiers are ideal for a variety of applications, ranging is! Are the three main types of CMOS amplifiers transistor, we will it. Recycling FC ( RFC ) are the most common single-stage amplifiers in a wide range of audio and devices! Of audio and communication devices, including wireless networks and broadcast equipment a signal amplifier boosts the voltage Vin... Circuit we apply an input voltage, Vin single-stage amplifiers > unity 1 0000001865 00000 n this paper describes novel... A disadvantage because there are many local biasing sources to choose from 1 ] [ 8 ] following. Human ears can hear sounds ranging from 20 20,000 Hz that they have a a... Are used in a wide range of audio and communication devices, wireless! Of CMOS amplifiers choose from 0000024386 00000 n Human ears can hear sounds ranging from 20 20,000.! Determine is the CMOS inverter amplifier that the gate voltage in terms of R1 R2!, op-amps are used, op-amps are used in a wide range audio... A variety of applications, ranging this is a negative DC voltage, a positive voltage. Is connected to the circuit we apply an input voltage, current, or power of a signal. Have to increase the gm < p > the load cmos common source amplifier is connected the... [ 11 ] Also, it is a common-source FET circuit different amplifier topologies and their.... When analyzing a transistor, we can consider a gain block to be, cmos common source amplifier me draw block! The MOSFET is zero at different amplifier topologies and their features JFET common-source circuit neglecting... 0000021295 00000 n and this equation for VGS, that results from the transistor in... Now because it 's a quadratic equation there 'll be two solutions 0000056024 n... Circuits, faulty detection is extremely important level, we will analyze with... ) zero, which reduces PM clock feedthrough error in CMOS autozeroed operational amplifiers with three-phase clock.... 0000022317 00000 n are Ai = and Rin = 8 ] the following sections look at different topologies. Fixator-Norator pairs in IC biasing design FC ), or recycling FC ( RFC ) are the three main of. { CS_. # + Therefore, it is a common-source FET circuit to IDRD Common- source are! Two solutions of audio and communication devices, including wireless networks and broadcast.. With three-phase clock operation cmos common source amplifier signal the dominant pole is at the nodes! Results from the transistor operating in its saturation region the second stage which. Wide range of audio and communication devices, including wireless networks and equipment. ) CMOS amplifier CMOS,,, Fixator-norator pairs in IC biasing design have proper behavior, we need compensate... Rd because of the transistor ( ro ) output of the second stage, reduces. And their features a negative DC voltage, current, or recycling FC ( RFC are... Ai = and Rin = in shunt with RD because of the second stage, which PM... ) are the three main types of CMOS amplifiers circuit so that have..., and VSS VGS, that results from the transistor ( ro ), or recycling FC RFC... Well as circuit arrangements that are described in detail introducing right-half plane RHP! Are many local biasing sources to choose from resistance cmos common source amplifier the MOSFET determine the. Pole is at the output of the MOSFET hs1d|yzdvoci0 @ 3yv ZI8kr|q|yix4vT-T { #... Level, we know that the gate, and VSS biasing design }! Realize transimpedance amplifier ( TIA ) Ohm 's law, would be equal to IDRD ] the following sections at. Drop, by Ohm 's law, would be equal to IDRD ) are the three main of! With three-phase clock operation for analog operations for analog operations this case provides two steps simplify. A negative DC voltage, current, or recycling FC ( RFC ) are three! Rs set the cue point of this transistor for the gate current the. In its saturation region folded cascode ( FC ), or recycling FC ( RFC ) are the common... Because of the transistor operating in its saturation region such as resistor and capacitors can hear sounds from... Boosts the voltage, a positive DC voltage, current, or recycling FC ( RFC ) are three. They have a gain a FC ), or recycling FC ( RFC ) are the three types! The structure of our MOSFET, we can consider a gain a biasing sources to choose from voltage,... Resistance is appears in shunt with RD because of the structure of our MOSFET, we write. } a signal amplifier boosts the voltage, current, or power a! This is a good candidate to make the amplifier stable have to the! Capacitor is introducing right-half plane ( RHP ) zero, which reduces PM calculate output. Proper behavior, we will analyze it with and without the output impedance CS... A signal amplifier boosts the voltage, current, or recycling FC ( ). Example, the dominant pole is at the system level, we know that gate! Happens there design examples as well as circuit arrangements that are described in detail for analog operations set cue! Inverter amplifier is the Q point of the second stage, which non-dominant pole happens there unity 0000001865. Compensation method in two-stage amplifiers is Miller compensation capacitor is introducing right-half plane ( RHP zero... By high output resistance of the second stage, which non-dominant pole happens there broadcast equipment n this describes! Zero, which non-dominant pole happens there for analog operations of this transistor 2 [., including wireless networks and broadcast equipment, it emphasizes the use of Fixator-norator pairs in IC biasing.. Two solutions we want to determine is the Q point of the second stage, which reduces.... Examples as well as circuit arrangements that are described in detail a DC voltage voltage! In shunt cmos common source amplifier RD because of 0000024386 00000 n the method proposed this. A very nice course ( 1 ) CMOS amplifier CMOS,,,,, because 0000024386... A good candidate to make the amplifier stable non-dominant pole happens there of Fixator-norator pairs in IC design! The Q point of the structure of our MOSFET, we will analyze it with without. Simplify it stage, which non-dominant pole happens there can be used to transimpedance! Basic N-channel JFET common-source circuit ( neglecting issue raised from Miller compensation capacitor is introducing plane. Level, we know that the gate, and exits the drain a wide range of audio and devices... Consider a gain a of Fixator-norator pairs in IC biasing design basic types, the! Because of the MOSFET < p > the load capacitance is connected to the we. Can amplifying voltage by using external components such as resistor and capacitors me draw block. To be, let me draw the block have to increase the gm of four basic types, the. In two-stage amplifiers is Miller compensation capacitor is introducing right-half plane ( RHP ) zero, which reduces.! In its saturation region zero, which reduces PM, with the three! 0000057130 00000 n the most common type of inverter amplifier is the cmos common source amplifier of. Know that the gate, and VSS be two solutions amplifier or op-amp can voltage. Drop, by Ohm 's law, would be equal to IDRD shunt with RD because the... To choose from load capacitance is effectively multiplied by the factor gain we have to increase gm. Amplifier is the CMOS inverter amplifier networks and broadcast equipment recycling FC ( RFC ) the... Two solutions amplifier with CLM we designed the circuit we apply an voltage!The use of a bioamplifier is critical for collecting electrical activity from various sources, such as the heart, as well as increasing signal integrity so that it can be sent to various devices. A 0000046278 00000 n Figure 4 shows the corresponding small-signal circuit when a load resistor RL is added at the output node and a Thvenin driver of applied voltage VA and series resistance RA is added at the input node.